What are the major surveys used by demographers?

page no 12
The following are some of the major surveys used by demographers.
1. World Fertility Survey: This was Introduced in the 1970s in demographic comminities as an important  sources of  fertility-related data.
2. Demographic and Health Services: The  Demographic and Health Surveys or (DHSs) are nationally representative household surveys with huge sample sizes.
3. Current Population Survey: This is a normally, nationwide survey which is conducted with the purpose of collecting data on the labour force.
4. National Survey of Family Growth: National survey of family growth involves the survey of male and female respondents in the ge group of 15-44 years.

What do you mean by differential mortality?

page no 40

Differential fertility in which not all groups reproduce at the same rate, it is not necessary that all groups of people die at the same rate. This difference in the rate of mortality is termed as differential mortality.

What are the various services provided for pregnant women under Antenatal Care?

PAGE NO 156
Services for pregnent women provided under Antenatal Care include:
* Early registration- before twelve weeks of pregnancy
* Minimum of three check-ups during pregnancy
* Administration of two doses of Tetanus Toxoid (TT)
* 100 tablets of Iron and Folic Acid (IFA)
* Counseling for nutritional diet during Pregnancy
* Treatment of anaemic cases

What are the three principle sources of demographic data?

KKHSOU BOOK PAGE NO 7
There are three principle sources of demographic data-
* Census
* Vital statistics
* Sample surveys

What is the relationship between fertility, fecundity and reproductive span?

PAGE NO 19

Fertility, fecundity and fecundability

In demography, fertility indicates the product or output of reproduction, rather than the ability to have children. The physiological ability to have children—that is manifest roughly in the period between menarche and menopause in women—is termed fecundity. Demographers define a third, further aspect of reproduction—fecundability—which is the probability of becoming pregnant, or the likelihood of exposure to the possibility, that depends on the pattern of sexual and pregnancy preventive behaviours.

http://www.gfmer.ch/Books/Reproductive_health/The_demography_of_fertility_and_infertility.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility

Analyse the growth of population studies in India.

page no 5

What is sample survey? Explain the major survey used by demographers.

page no 12

Explain the methods of conducting a census.

page no 10

Define census. Write a short note on the origen of census.

page  no 9

List the Characteristics of census

page no 9

Explain the various elements of demographic data

page no 8

Write a short Note on the significance of demography.

Ans=  page No 6

Explain The objective of demography.

Ans= Social Demography page No 3/1.3.1

‘India is the world’s most populated country after China. ’ Examine with the the help of a diagram the trend of population growth in India

Ans=
India is the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.311 billion people (2015), more than a sixth of the world's population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to be the world's most populous country by 2022, surpassing China, its population reaching 1.6 billion by 2050.^[5][6] Its population growth rate is 1.2%, ranking 94th in the world in 2013.^[7] The Indian population had reached the billion mark by 1998.
India has more than 50% of its population below the age of 25 and more than 65% below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be 29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India's dependency ratio should be just over 0.4.^[8]
India has more than two thousand ethnic groups,^[9] and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages) as well as two language isolates (the Nihali language^[10] spoken in parts of Maharashtra and the Burushaski language spoken in parts of Jammu and Kashmir). The modern Indian republic is home to 97% of Jains, 90% of Sikhs, 87% of Hindus, 50% of Zoroastrians, 40% of Baha'i, 20% of Shia Muslims, 10% of Sunni Muslims, 5% of Ahmadiyya Muslims, 2% of Buddhists and 1% of Christians worldwide.
Further complexity is lent by the great variation that occurs across this population on social parameters such as income and education. Only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, genetic and cultural diversity of the nation of India.<sup>[11]

Page No 128
Table 4.20 Decadal Growth of Population In India

                                             or</sup>

S.No.	Census Year	Population [23]	% Change [23]
1	1951	361,088,000	-----
2	1961	439,235,000	21.6
3	1971	548,160,000	24.8
4	1981	683,329,000	24.7
5	1991	846,387,888	23.9
6	2001	1,028,737,436	21.5
7	2011	1,210,726,932	17.7

History

Ancient India in 300 BC may have had a population in the range 100–140 million. It has been estimated that the population was about 100 million in 1600 and remained nearly static until the late 19th century. It reached 255 million according to the first census taken in 1881.^[12][13]
Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, growth rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Mumbai (Bombay), and Kolkata (Calcutta).^[14]
Mortality rates fell in the period 1920–45, primarily due to biological immunization. Other factors included rising incomes, better living conditions, improved nutrition, a safer and cleaner environment, and better official health policies and medical care.<sup>[15]
 


 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India</sup> 

Examine the changes that prevailed in the post colonial period in North East India.

Ans=  Page No 40

Critically Discuss the Theory of Optimum Population.

Read this article to learn about the Optimum Theory of Population!


The optimum theory of population was propounded by Edwin Cannan in his book Wealth published in 1924 and popularised by Robbins, Dalton and Carr-Saunders. Unlike the Malthusian theory, the optimum theory does not establish relationship between population growth and food supply. Rather, it is concerned with the relation between the size of population and production of wealth. The Malthusian theory is a general theory which studies the population problem of a country in keeping with its economic conditions. Thus the optimum theory is more realistic than the Malthusian theory of population.

Definitions:
But what is optimum population? The optimum population is the ideal population which combined with the other available resources or means of production of the country will yield the maximum returns or income per head. The concept of optimum population has been defined differently by Robbins, Carr- Saunders and Dalton. Robbins defines it as “the population which just makes the maximum returns possible is the optimum population or the best possible population.” Carr-Saunders defines it as “that population which produces maximum economic welfare.” To Dalton, “Optimum population is that which gives the maximum income per head.” If we were to examine these views, we find that Dalton’s view is more scientific and realistic which we follow.

Statement:

The optimum population is that ideal size of population which provides the maximum income per head. Any rise or diminution in the size of the population above or below the optimum level will diminish income per head. Given the stock of natural resources, the technique of production and the stock of capital in a country, there is a definite size of population corresponding to the highest per capita income.
Other things being equal, any deviation from this optimum-sized population will lead to a reduction in the per capita income. If the increase in population is followed by the increase in per capita income, the country is under-populated and it can afford to increase its population till it reaches the optimum level. On the contrary, if the increase in population leads to diminution in per capita income, the country is over-populated and needs a decline in population till the per capita income is maximised.
But the optimum level is not a fixed point. It changes with a change in any of the factors assumed to be given. For instance, if there are improvements in the methods and techniques of production, the output per head will rise and the optimum point will shift upward. What the optimum point for the country is today, may not be tomorrow if the stock of natural resources increases and the optimum point will be higher than before. Thus the optimum is not a fixed but a movable point.
According to Cannan, “At any given time, increase of labour up to a certain point is attended by increasing proportionate 5 returns and beyond that point further increase of labour is E attended by diminishing proportionate returns.” The per capita —income is the highest at the point where the average product of labour starts falling. This point of maximum returns’ is the point of optimum population. This is illustrated in Figure 17. 2.

The size of population is measured on the horizontal axis and the average product of labour on the vertical axis. AP is the average product of labour or income per head curve. Up to OP level, increases in population lead to a rise in the average product of labour and per capita income. Beyond OP, the average product of labour and per capita income fall. Hence when population is OP, the per capita income is the highest at point L. Thus, OP is the optimum level of population. To the left of OP, the country is under-populated and beyond OP, it is over-populated.
However, OP is not a fixed point. If due to inventions there are improvements in the techniques of production, the average product of labour might increase and push the level of per capita income upward so that the optimum point rises. This is shown in the figure where the AP₁ curve represents the higher average product of labour and point L₁ shows the maximum per capita income at the new optimum level of population OP₁.

Dalton’s Formula:

Dalton has deduced over-population and under-population which result in the deviation from the optimum level of population in the form of a formula. The deviation from the optimum, he calls maladjustment. Maladjustment (M) is a function of two variables, the optimum level of population О and the actual level of population A. The maladjustment is M= A – 0/0
When M is positive, the country is over-populated, and if it is negative, the country is under-populated. When M is zero, the country possesses optimum population. Since it is not possible to measure O₁ this formula is only of academic interest.

Its Superiority over the Malthusian Theory:

The optimum theory of population is superior to the Malthusian theory on the following grounds.
(1) The Malthusian law is a general study of the population problem because it is applicable to all countries irrespective of their economic conditions. The optimum theory is superior to the Malthusian theory because it studies the population problem in relation to the economic conditions of a particular country.
(2) Malthus had a narrow vision. He related the growth of population to food supply. Cannan, on the other hand, had a much wider outlook. He related the problem of population to the total production of the country, both industrial and agricultural.
(3) The Malthusian theory is a static concept which applies to a period of time. The optimum theory is a dynamic one because over a period of time the per capita income may rise with the expansion in output due to improvements in knowledge, skill, capital equipment and other elements in production. This may raise the optimum level of population. Thus the optimum theory is more realistic.
(4) The Malthusian doctrine is simply theoretical and is devoid of all practical considerations. It regards all increases in population bad, for they bring untold miseries to the people. Malthus wrote, “The table of nature is laid for a limited number of guests and those who come uninvited must starve.” On the other hand, the optimum theory is very practical because it regards an increase in population not only desirable but also necessary for the maximum utilisation of the country’s natural resources.
(5) The Malthusian theory of population is based on the unrealistic assumption of the niggardliness of nature. This belief arises from the operation of the law of diminishing returns in agriculture. But the optimum theory takes a realistic view when according to this the law of diminishing returns does not operate in agriculture immediately but after the optimum point is reached. In other words, first the law of increasing returns operates up to the optimum point and the law of diminishing returns after it.
(6) Malthus was so much obsessed by the fear of over-population that he ignored a fundamental fact that a newly born child ‘comes not only with a mouth and a stomach but also with a pair of hands’. The optimum population theory allays all such fears of the Malthusians by stressing the fact that increasing population increases the labour force which helps raise the optimum expansion of the country’s natural resources.
So long as the actual population is less than the optimum, the increase in population is safe and good. It is only when the actual population exceeds the optimum that the increase in population needs control Thus unlike the Malthusian theory which necessitates the use of preventive checks all the time for fear of the country being over-populated, the optimum theory is free from all such taboos and is silent about any type of checks to control population.
(7) Malthus was essentially a pessimist who portrayed a gloomy picture about the future of mankind which was full of misery, vice, floods, droughts, famines and other natural calamities. The optimum theory; is superior to the Malthusian theory because it does not suffer from any pessimism, rather it adopts an optimise and realistic attitude towards the problem of population when it relates population to the wealth of the country.

Its Criticisms:

Despite the superiority of the optimum theory over the Malthusian theory of population, it has serious weaknesses.

(1) No Evidence of Optimum Level:

The first weakness of the optimum theory is that it is difficult to whether there is anything like an optimum population. There is no evidence about the optimum population level in any country. In fact, it is impossible to measure it. For optimum population implies a qualitative; well as a quantitative ideal population for the country. The qualitative ideal implies not only physique knowledge and intelligence, but also the best age composition of population. These variables are subject change and are related to an environment. Thus the optimum level of population is vague.

(2) Correct Measurement of Per Capita Income not Possible:

Another difficulty pertains to the measurement of per capita income in the country. It is not an easy task to measure changes in the per capita income. The data on per capita income are often inaccurate, misleading and unreliable which make the concept of optimum as one of doubtful validity.

(3) Neglects the Distributional Aspect of Increase in Per Capita Income:

Even if it is assumed that per capita income can be measured, it is not certain that the increase in population accompanied by the increase in per capita income would bring prosperity to the country. Rather, the increase in per capita income and population might prove harmful to the economy if the increase in per capita income has been the result of concentration of income in the hands of a few rich. Thus the optimum theory of population neglects the distributional aspect of increase in the per capita income.

(4) Optimum Level not fixed but oscillating:

The concept of the optimum population assumes that the techniques of production, the stock of capital and natural resources, the habits and tastes of the people, the ratio of working population to total population, and the modes of business organisation are constant. But all these factors are constantly changing. As a result, what may be the optimum at a point of time might become less or more than the optimum over a period of time. This is illustrated in figure 17.3.

AP₁ is the average product of labour or per capita income curve. Suppose there is an innovation which brings a change in the techniques of production. It shifts the per capita income curve to AP₂. As a result, the optimum level of population rises from OP₁ to OP₂ with the increase in per capita income E from P₁M₁ to P₂M₂. If the per capita income rises further due to a change in any of the above assumed factors, the AP₂, curve will shift upward. The AP₂ or AP₁ curve can also shift downward if, for instance, the capita income falls due to an adverse change in the given factors. If the locus of all such S. points like M₁ M₂ etc., are joined by a line, we have the PI curve which represents the path of the movement of the optimum population as a result of changes in the economic factors. If, however, the actual level of population is assumed to be OP₀ and the optimum level OP₁ then the country is over- populated. If OP₁ is the optimum level, then the country is under-populated. Thus the optimum is not a fixed level but an oscillating one.

(5) Neglects Social and Institutional Conditions:

The optimum theory considers only the economic factors which determine the level of population. Thus it fails to take into consideration the social and institutional conditions which greatly influence the level of population in a country. A lower level of optimum population may be justified from the economic viewpoint, but such a level may be harmful keeping into view the defence considerations of the country. For instance, economic consideration may prevent us from having a large population but the danger from foreign aggression may necessitate a very large population to safeguard our territorial integrity. Thus the optimum theory is imperfect and one-sided.

(6) No Place in State Policies:

The concept of optimum population has no place in the policies of modern states. While fiscal policy aims at increasing or stabilising the level of employment, output and income in a country, no reference is made to the optimum level of population. This theory is, therefore, of no practical use and is regarded as useless.

---

 http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/population/the-optimum-theory-of-population-economics/10891/

Define Vital Statistics

Define Vital Statistics
Ans= 
Vital statistics are statistics on live births, deaths, fetal deaths, marriages and divorces. The most common way of collecting information on these events is through civil registration, an administrative system used by governments to record vital events which occur in their populations (see Box 1). Efforts to improve the quality of vital statistics will therefore be closely related to the development of civil registration systems in countries.

Box 1. United Nations Definitions of Vital Statistics and Civil Registration Systems A vital statistics system is defined by the United Nations “as the total process of (a) collecting information by civil registration or enumeration on the frequency or occurrence of specified and defined vital events, as well as relevant characteristics of the events themselves and the person or persons concerned, and (b) compiling, processing, analyzing, evaluating, presenting, and disseminating these data in statistical form” (UN, 2001). Civil registration, as defined by the United Nations, is the” continuous, permanent, compulsory, and universal recording of the occurrence and characteristics of vital events (livebirths, deaths, fetal deaths, marriages, and divorces) and other civil status events pertaining to the population as provided by decree, law or regulation, in accordance with the legal requirements in each country.”
The origin of vital statistics begins as early as 1869^[1] and death by social class was recorded in England beginning in 1921.^[2]
While the number of births and deaths can be obtained by enumeration at certain points in time (e.g. censuses and surveys), civil registration collects this information on a continuous basis and is the only source that provides individuals with a legal document. For instance, the importance of birth registration as the first legal recognition of the child is emphasized in Article 7 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child which states that “the child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality and, as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents”. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and a number of non-governmental organizations (Plan International, Save the Children Fund, World Vision, etc.) have particularly promoted the human rights aspects of registration, while the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) have focused more on the statistical aspects of civil registration.
Countries which are signatories to the Convention on the Rights of the Child are therefore expected to set up systems to register the births of all children. Non-registration of a child can have negative consequences on the wider enjoyment of a child’s fundamental rights to benefits such as identity, inheritance, education, health and other social services. Birth registration is also part of a broader strategy to ensure that children are less vulnerable to abuse and exploitation, especially if separated from their parents. In the absence of a functioning birth registration system, it is difficult to see how a country can enforce age-related legal concerns such as schooling, child labour, juvenile justice, early marriage, sexual exploitation and military recruitment. Recent natural disasters and calamities have also demonstrated the utility of a birth certificate for reuniting lost children with their families.
Many civil registration systems also collect information on causes of death. Statistics based on these death records are of particular importance in public health for identifying the magnitude and distribution of major disease problems, and are essential for the design, implementation, monitoring, and assessment of health programmes and policies.
Toronto scientist, professor Prabhat Jha argues that inexpensive recording of vital statistics in developing countries is the most effective means to improve global health^[3] and has outlined 5 options for expanding Cause of Death reporting.^[4]
"Despite the importance of tracking causes of death and the tradition since 1893 of standardisation of definitions and coding for causes of death in the International Classification of Diseases and Injuries (ICD), global assessments of causes of death are a major analytical challenge. Vital registration systems that include medical certification of the cause of death captured about 18.8 million deaths of an estimated annual total of 51.7 million deaths in 2005, which is the latest year for which the largest number of countries reported deaths from a vital registration system. Even for these deaths, the comparability of findings on the leading causes of death is affected by variation in certification skills among physicians, the diagnostic and pathological data available at the time of completing a death certificate, variations in medical culture in choosing the underlying cause, and legal and institutional frameworks for governing mortality reporting. For the remaining deaths that are not medically certified, many different data sources and diagnostic approaches must be used from surveillance systems, demographic research sites, surveys, censuses, disease registries, and police records to construct a consolidated picture of causes of death in various populations. Because of the variety of data sources and their associated biases, causes of death assessments are inherently uncertain and subject to vigorous debate." Lozano et all. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, V. 380, Dec 2012 "www.thelancet.com Vol 380 December 15/22/29, 2012".
The agency responsible for overseeing this system in the United States is the National Center for Health Statistics, a division of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital statistics for the US can be found here
The agency responsible for overseeing this system in the United Kingdom is the Office for Nat

Critically examine the various theoretical perspectives on gender

Q. Critically examine the various theoretical perspectives on gender.
Ans=   The issues related to gender such as, gender equality, division of labour along gender lines and even gender identity, have been of great interest for many sociologists and the major theoretical paradigms in sociology have been used in explaining the relevance of gender in social organization. We shall summaries the main ideas that are presented in the literature relative to gender.

The International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994 placed reproductive health at the center stage of demographic objectives insted of fertility reduction. The Cairo Conference recognized women's rights as individual reproductive rights.
               Different perspectives and approaches would explain the problem and prospects of women's development.

Theory of Culture Dualism 
the argument that are a culturally constructed gender category rather than simply a biological sex led to a much broader feminist challenge to existing knowledge of the relations between men and women. Ortner (1982), in an ambitious of the to avoid biological determinism while it was that would lead every culture to place a lower valuer on women than on men.

Social Evolutionary theory
Social Evolution theory is preoccupied with the question of whether women's position is becoming better or worse as societies undergo change. By emphasizing on the division of labour, the theory provides an explanation  for inequality between and within societies.
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution

Developmentalism
Developmentalism is an economic theory which states that the best way for Third World countries to develop is through fostering a strong and varied internal market and to impose high tariffs on imported goods.
<sup>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmentalism

Dependency Theory</sup>
Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".
The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.<sup>[1]
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_theory

Biological Perspective
Biological Psychology. We can thank Charles Darwin (1859) for demonstrating in the idea that genetics and evolution play a role in influencing human behavior through natural selection. Theorists in the biological perspective who study behavioral genomics consider how genes affect behavior.
 http://www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html</sup>

Elaborate upon the concept of community medicine.

Elaborate upon the concept of community medicine.
Ans=  Community Medicine is a new branch of medicine. It is often considered synonymous with Preventive and Social Medicine(PSM) , Public Health, and Community Health. All these share common ground, i.e., prevention of disease and promotion of health. In short, Community Medicine provides comprehensive health services ranging from preventive, promotive, curative to rehabilitative services. The importance of the speciality of Community Medicine has been very well recognised and emphasized repeatedly from grass root to international levels, not only in health sector but in other related sectors too. The scope of medicine has expanded during the last few decades to include not only health problems of individuals, but those of communities as well. If we want to achieve Health For All, Community Medicine will definitely be the key factor during the next millennium.

 The Term community medicine means different things in different countries. For example, in most European countries, various aspect of community medicine are taugh in medical universities though under different names, such as general practice, family medicine, community medicine or social medicine.

 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Textbook_of_Community_Medicine/History_of_Community_Medicine

Discuss the different system of medicine prevailing in India.

Discuss the different system of medicine prevailing in India.
Ans=  It is a well-known fact that Traditional Systems of medicines always played important role in meeting the global health care needs. They are continuing to do so at present and shall play major role in future also. The system of medicines which are considered to be Indian in origin or the systems of medicine, which have come to India from outside and got assimilated in to Indian culture are known as Indian Systems of Medicine (Prasad, 2002). India has the unique distinction of having six recognized systems of medicine in this category. They are-Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Yoga, Naturopathy and Homoeopathy. Though Homoeopathy came to India in 18^th Century, it completely assimilated in to the Indian culture and got enriched like any other traditional system hence it is considered as part of Indian Systems of Medicine (Prasad, 2002). Apart from these systems- there are large number of healers in the folklore stream who have not been organized under any category. In the present review, attempt would be made to provide brief profile of three systems to familiarize the readers about them so as to facilitate acquisition of further information.

Siddha Medicine (Tamil Citta- or Tamiḻ-maruttuvam) is a system of traditional medicine originating in Tamil Nadu in South India.^[1][2]
Traditionally, it is taught that the siddhars laid the foundation for this system of medication. Siddhars were spiritual adepts who possessed the ashta siddhis, or the eight supernatural powers. Agastya is considered the first siddha and the guru of all siddhars; the siddha system is believed to have been handed over to him by Murugan, son of Shiva and Parvati.^[3]
The Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy of the Government of India coordinates and promotes research in the fields of ayurveda and Siddha medicine.^[4] The Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM), a statutory body established in 1971 under AYUSH, monitors higher education in areas of Indian medicine, including siddha medicine.^[5] To fight bioprospecting and unethical patents, India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in 2001 as a repository of 223,000 formulations of various systems of medicine common in India, such as ayurveda, unani, siddha medicine and homeopathy.^[6][7]

Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine is a modern phenomenon which has been influenced by the ancient Indian practice of hatha yoga. It involves holding stretches as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, and is often used for therapeutic purposes.^[1][2][3] Yoga in this sense often occurs in a class and may involve meditation, imagery, breath work and music.^[4][5]
Both the meditative and the exercise components of hatha yoga have been researched for both specific and non-specific health benefits. Hatha yoga has been studied as an intervention for many conditions, including back pain, stress, and depression. In general, it can help improve quality of life, but does not treat disease.^[6]
A survey released in December 2008 by the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health^[7] found that hatha yoga was the sixth most commonly used alternative therapy in the United States during 2007, with 6.1 percent of the population participating.[8
Yunani or Unani medicine (Urdu: طب یونانی tibb yūnānī^[1]) is the term for Perso-Arabic traditional medicine as practiced in Mughal India and in Muslim culture in South Asia. The term is derived from Arabic Yūnānī "Greek", as the Perso-Arabic system of medicine was in turn based on the teachings of the Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen.^[2]
The Hellenistic origin of Unani medicine is still visible in its being based on the classical four humours: Phlegm (Balgham), Blood (Dam), Yellow bile (Ṣafrā') and Black bile (Saudā'), but it has also been influenced by Indian and Chinese traditional systems.^[3]


Naturopathy or naturopathic medicine is a form of alternative medicine employing a wide array of "natural" modalities, including homeopathy, herbalism, and acupuncture, as well as diet (nutrition) and lifestyle counseling. Naturopaths favor a holistic approach with non-invasive treatment and generally avoid the use of surgery and drugs. Naturopathic medicine contains many pseudoscientific concepts and its practice can be ineffective or harmful, raising ethical issues.^[1][2][3] Naturopaths have been accused of being charlatans and practicing quackery.^{[1][4][5][6][7][8]}
Much of the ideology and methodological underpinnings of naturopathy are based on vitalism and self-healing, rather than evidence-based medicine.^[9] Naturopathic education contains little of the established clinical training and curriculum completed by primary care doctors, as naturopaths mostly train by studying unscientific notions and practicing unproven interventions and diagnoses.^[1][10] Naturopaths tend to oppose vaccines and teach their students anti- and alternative vaccine practices, resulting in lower vaccination rates.^{[11][12][13][14]} According to the American Cancer Society, "scientific evidence does not support claims that naturopathic medicine can cure cancer or any other disease, since virtually no studies on naturopathy as a whole have been published."^{[15]
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy} 



Homeopathy (ⁱ/ˌhoʊmiˈɒpəθi/) is a system of alternative medicine created in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann based on his doctrine of like cures like (similia similibus curentur), a claim that a substance that causes the symptoms of a disease in healthy people would cure similar symptoms in sick people.^[1] Large-scale studies have found homeopathic preparations to be no more effective than a placebo, suggesting that positive feelings after taking homeopathic medicines are due to the placebo effect and normal recovery from illness.^[2][3][4] Homeopathy is a pseudoscience—a belief that is incorrectly presented as scientific—and is ineffective for treating any condition.^[5][6][7][8]

What is the Alma-Ata declaration?

Q. What is the Alma-Ata declaration?
Ans=  The Declaration of Alma-Ata was adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care (PHC), Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata), Kazakhstan (formerly Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic), 6-12 September 1978. It expressed the need for urgent action by all governments, all health and development workers, and the world community to protect and promote the health of all people. It was the first international declaration underlining the importance of primary health care. The primary health care approach has since then been accepted by member countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) as the key to achieving the goal of "Health For All" but only in third world countries at first. This applied to all other countries five years later.

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_Ata_Declaration

What are the various uses of epidemiology?

Q. What are the various uses of epidemiology?
Ans= * Determine the frequency of a disease in the community
          * Identify the cause of a disease of unknown etiology
          * study the natural history of the disease
          * Provide data base for health planers
          * Evaluate health intervention measures or activities

What is Epidemiology?

What is Epidemiology?

Ans= Epidemiology, literally translated from Greek, means "the study of people". In fact, we use the term epidemiology to mean the study of diseases in populations.

epidemiology mean

epidemiology mean.

Ans= the branch of medicine which deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health.
                                                                       or
Epidemiology is the study of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare.

What do you mean by CAM?

What do you mean by CAM?
Ans=  Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is the popular term for health and wellness therapies that have typically not been part of conventional Western medicine. Complementary means treatments that are used along with conventional medicine.

      
CAM focuses on the whole person and includes physical, emotional, mental and spiritual health. For example, CAM includes mind-body medicine (such as meditation, acupuncture and yoga), manipulative and body-based practices (such as massage therapy and spinal manipulation), and natural products (such as herbs and dietary supplements).
Most CAM studies in the U.S. show that few people forgo conventional medicine. So the term "integrative medicine" is increasingly preferred. Integrative medicine combines, or integrates, the best of conventional medical care with the best of evidence-based CAM.

What do you Mean by health culture?

Q. What do you Mean by health culture?
 Ans= Health Culture is a complex whole, which includes cultural perception and meaning of health problems and health behaviour of individuals in the context of a available and accessible health institution.

Define Culture

Q. Define Culture.
Ans= Culture is inclusive of the beliefs and customs of a society which have developed in attempting to manage its shared problem, a part of which concern the occurrence of illness and the need for medical treatment.